PRESENTING RESULTS: WRITTEN AND ORAL REPORTS NOTES
7.0 Introduction
Report writing is the last step in the research process. After data have
been collected, analysed and interpreted, the researcher has to prepare
a report of the findings of the study. It may be seen unscientific and
even unfair, but a poor report or presentation can destroy a study.
7.1 Role of the Research Report
The main role of the research report is to communicate the findings of
the research project. The project should answer the questions raised in
the statement of objectives of the study. The researcher should be
clearly aware of the purpose of the research
when preparing the report. A research project can bring out a lot of
information but much of this information may not be relevant to the
problem initially defined. Only information that is likely to be useful
to the decision maker in decision making should be included in the
report. The researcher will need to use his own judgement in deciding
what information should be omitted. For the report to be of maximum use
to the decision maker, it must be objective. The researcher should
therefore have the courage to present and defend their results as long
as they are convinced that they are valid. They should also clearly
indicate any limitations of the study.
*7.2 Research Report Criteria
The main criteria by which research reports are evaluated are
communication with the reader. The report is prepared for a specific
purpose and for a specific type of audience. It should therefore
communicate effectively with the intended audience. The report should be
written with due consideration for the readers, their level of interest
in the subject, understanding of technical terms and what they will make
of the report. In order to tailor the report to meet the needs of the
readers, the researcher should understand the readers’ preferences. One
may find that different readers have different preferences and this may
at times bring conflicts. Some readers may want to have the basic
information only while others prefer to have the technical details
clearly brought out in the report. One way to reconcile these
conflicting interests is to prepare a basic report with a minimum detail
and to have appendices that give the technical details. Again, in some
cases, the researcher may indicate that certainly details have been
omitted but are available upon request.
Another point to consider regarding the report’s ability to communicate
with the intended reader is whether the reader has to keep referring to
the dictionary as this may seriously interfere with the flow of
information and thus affect communication.
7.3 Writing Criteria
A report should satisfy the following criteria to improve its chances of
communicating effectively with the reader:
- Completeness.
- Accuracy
- Clarity
- Conciseness
Let us now discuss how each of these criteria enhances communication.
- Completeness
A report should provide all the information that readers need in a
language they understand. This means that the writer should continually
ask himself whether all the issues in the research objectives have been
addressed. The report should not be too long as to include findings that
are not relevant to the study. Yet, it should not be too short as to
omit necessary definitions and explanations.
The abilities and interests of readers should be considered in
determining completeness. - Accuracy
The preceding steps in the research process provide the basic input for
the report. This means that the data generated at the data collection
and analysis steps should be accurate in order for the report to be
accurate. - Clarity
Writing clearly is not easy. Clarity is achieved by clear logical
thinking and precision of expression. The way the report is organised
may contribute to clarity or affect it negatively.
Some principles of writing clearly are:
- Use short and simple sentences.
- Use simple words which the reader is familiar with.
- Ensure that words and phrases express exactly what the writer means
to say. - Avoid grammatical errors.
- Use uniform style and format. It may help to write a first draft and
then have another person review it before preparing the final report.
4.Conciseness
The criteria of completeness should not be complemented by conciseness.
The writer should be concise in his writing and selective with regard to
what to include in the report. The report should be brief and to the
point – this means that the report should not include everything that
has been found but only what is relevant to the study. The writing style
should render itself to conciseness. The findings should be expressed
completely and clearly in the fewest words possible.
7.4 Report Format
The organisation of the report influences its ability to meet all the
criteria of report writing. There is no format that is appropriate for
all reports. A report should use a format that best fits the needs of
its readers. The following format may be used for most types of reports.
It should be seen as flexible and open to changes and adjustments
depending with needs of the reader.
- Title page
- Table of contents
- Summary/Abstract/Executive Summary
- Problem statement
- Statement of objectives
- Background
- Research methodology
- Research design
- Data collection method
- Sampling
- Fieldwork
- Analysis and interpretation
- Limitations of the study
- Findings of the study
- Summary and conclusions
- Recommendations
- Appendix
- Copies of data collection instruments.
- Details of sample size determination.
- Tables not included in the findings.
- Bibliography.
Let us briefly discuss each of these terms. - Title Page
The title page should indicate the subject of the report, the name of
the organisation for whom the report is prepared, the name of
organisation or person who prepared it and the date the report is prepared.
If the report is done by employees of the company, then the names of the
people or departments
preparing the report are given. - Table of Contents
As a rough guide, any report of several sections that totals more than 6
to 10 pages should have a table of contents. This shows in order of
appearance the topics and subtopics of the report with page references.
It also includes tables and charts and pages where they may be found. - Summary/Abstract
Some authors consider the summary to be the most important part of the
report. This is mainly because most executives read only the summary or
they us it to guide them on what areas of the report to give more
attention. It should contain the necessary background information as
well as the important findings and conclusions. Two pages are generally
sufficient for executive summaries. Write this section after the rest of
the report is finished. - Problem Statement
It contains the need for the research project. The problem is usually
represented by research question(s). It is followed by a more detailed
set of objectives. - Statement of Objectives
This states the objectives of the study and should clearly indicate the
purpose of the study and what the report tries to answer. - Background
Background material may be of two types. It may be preliminary results
of exploration from an experience survey, focus group, or another
source. Alternatively, it could be secondary data from the literature
review. - Research Methodology
This section describes the research procedures http://knecnotes.co.ke/
or methods used. It should indicate the research design, sampling
procedures, data collection and data analysis procedures used. This
section provides information on the manner in which the findings
reported were gathered, analysed and interpreted. - Limitations of the Study
This topic is often handled with ambivalence. Some people wish to ignore
the matter, feeling that mentioning limitations detracts from the impact
of the study. This attitude is unprofessional and possibly unethical.
Every research project has limitations and the research should call the
readers attention to them. This gives the reader a more accurate picture
of the study and helps him to interprete the findings more objectively. - Findings of the Study
In this section which makes the bulk of the report, the results of the
study are presented. The specific objectives of the study should be kept
in mind and the results should be presented in a logical manner. Only
information that contributes to answering the questions posed in the
study objectives should be reported. Tables, charts and figures should
be presented in a logical manner
to facilitate flow of thought and appreciation. - Summary and Conclusions
The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional
summaries may be used if there are many specific findings. They may be
combined into an overall summary. In simple, descriptive research, a
summary may complete the report, because conclusions and recommendations
may not be required. Findings state facts, conclusions represent
inferences drawn from the findings. Conclusions should be drawn with
reference to the objectives of the study. The researcher should show the
step by step development of conclusions and state them with some detail.
Conclusions may be presented in a tabular form for easy reading and
reference.
If for some reason the study does not obtain adequate data on which to
make conclusions, this should be acknowledged. - Recommendations
There are usually a few ideas about corrective actions. In academic
research, the recommendations are often further study suggestions that
broaden or test understanding of the subject area. In applied research
the recommendations will usually be for managerial action
rather than research action. The writer may offer several alternatives
with justifications. It is therefore, not always possible or necessary
to make recommendations. However, in some cases, the researcher may be
asked to make recommendations. In this case, he will need further
information on the background of the organisation and its policies.
Appendix
The appendix provides a place for material that does not fit in the
other parts of the research report. This may be because its too
detailed, technical or specialized, or is not absolutely necessary for
the text. The appendix normally contains details on sample design and
sample size determination, an exhibit copy of the data collection
instrument; maps used to draw up the sample; detailed statistical tables
and figures. The appendix helps those interested in the technical
details to find them easily.
7.5 Presentation of Statistics
The presentation of statistics in research reports is a special
challenge for writers. Four basic ways to present such data are in (1) a
text paragraph, (2) semitabular form, (3) tables, or (4) graphics.
- Text Presentation
This is probably the most common when there are only a few statistics.
The writer can direct the reader’s attention to certain numbers or
comparisons and emphasize specific points. The drawback is that the
statistics are submerged in the text, requiring the reader to scan the
entire paragraph to extract the meaning. The following material has a
few simple comparisons but becomes more complicated when text and
statistics are combined. A comparison of the three aerospace and defense
companies from the high-tech stratum of the
Forbes 500 sample show that Sundstrand had the best sales growth record
over the years 1988- 1989. Its growth was 8.0 percent – with sales
significantly lower than the other two firms in the sample. This
compares to sales growth for Rockwell International of 3.3 percent, and
AlliedSignal was third at only 0.8 percent sales increase. Rockwell
International generated the most profits in 1989 among the three
companies. Rockwell’s net profits were $720.7 million as compared to
$528 million for Allied-Signal and $120.8 million for Sundstrand.
- Semitabular Presentation
When there are just a few figures, they may be taken from the text and
listed. Lists of quantitative comparisons are much easier to read and
understand than embedded statistics.
An example of semitabular presentation is shown below: A comparison of
the three aerospace-defense companies in the Forbes 500 sample shows
that Sundstrand showed the best sales growth between 1988 and 1989.
Rockwell International generated the highest net profits for the year 1989. - Tabular Presentation
Tables are generally superior to text for presenting statistics
although they should be
accompanied by comments directing the reader’s attention to important
figures. Tables facilitate quantitative comparisons and provide a
concise, efficient way to present numerical data. Tables are either
general or summary in nature. General tables tend to be large, complex
and detailed. They serve as the repository for the statistical findings
of the study and are usually in the appendix of a research report.
Summary tables contain only a few key pieces of data closely related to
a specific finding. To make them inviting to the reader (who often skips
them), the table designer should omit unimportant details and collapse
multiple classifications into composite measures that may be sustained
for the original data. Any table should contain enough information for
the reader to understand its contents. The title should explain the
subject of the table, how the data are classified, the time period, or
other related matters. A subtitle is sometimes included under the title
to explain something about the table; most often this is a statement of
the measurement units in which data are expressed. The contents of the
columns should be clearly identified by the column heads, and the
contents of the
stub should do the same for the rows. The body of the table contains the
data, while the footnotes contain any needed explanations. Footnotes
should be identified by letters or symbols such as asterisks, rather
than by numbers, to avoid confusion with data values. Finally, there
should be a source note if the data do not come from your original research.
- Graphics
Compared with tables, graphs show less information and often only
approximate values. However, they are more often read and remembered
than tables. Their great advantage is that they convey quantitative
values and comparisons more readily than tables. With personal computer
charting programs, you can easily turn a set of numbers into a chart or
graph.
7.6 Oral Presentations
Researchers often present their findings orally. These presentations,
sometimes called briefings, have some unique characteristics that
distinguish them from most other kinds of public speaking: Only a small
group of people is involved; statistics normally constitute an important
portion of the topic; the audience members are usually managers with an
interest in the topic, but they want to hear only the critical elements;
speaking time will often be as short as 20 minutes but may run longer
than an hour; and the presentation is normally followed by questions and
discussion.
Preparation
A successful briefing typically requires condensing a lengthy and
complex body of information. Since speaking rates should not exceed 100
to 150 words per minute, a 20-minute presentation limits you to about
2,000 to 2,500 words. If you are to communicate effectively under such
conditions, you must plan carefully. Begin by asking two questions.
First, how long should you plan to talk? Usually there is an indication
of the acceptable presentation length. It may be the custom in an
organisation to take a given allotted time for a briefing. If the time
is severely limited, then the need for topical priorities is obvious.
This leads to the second question: What are the purposes of the
briefing? Is it to raise concern about problems that have been
uncovered? Is it to add to the knowledge of audience members? Is it to
give them conclusions and recommendations for their decision making?
Questions such as these illustrate the general objectives of the report.
After answering these questions, you should develop a detailed outline
of what you are going to say. Such an outline should contain the
following major parts:
- Opening. A brief statement, probably not more than 10 percent of the
allottted time, sets the stage for the body of the report. The opening
should be direct, get attention, and introduce the nature of the
discussion that follows. It should explain the nature of the project,
how it came about, and what it attempted to do. - Findings and Conclusions. The conclusions may be stated immediately
after the opening remarks, with each conclusion followed by the findings
that support it. - Recommendations. Where appropriate, these are stated in the third
stage; each recommendation may be followed by references to the
conclusions leading to it. Presented in this manner, they provide a
natural climax to the report. At the end of the presentation, it
may be appropriate to call for questions from the audience.
Early in the planning stage you need to make two further decisions. The
first concerns the type of audiovisuals (AV) that will be used and the
role they will play in the presentation. AV decisions are important
enough that they are often made before the briefing outline and text are
developed.
Then you must decide on the type of presentation. Will you give a
memorized speech, read from your manuscript, or give an extemporaneous
presentation? We rule out the impromptu briefing as an option because
impromptu speaking does not involve preparation. Your reputation and the
research effort should not be jeopardized by ‘winging it’.
Memorization is a risky and time-consuming course to follow. Any memory
slip during the presentation can be a catastrophe, and the delivery
sound stilted and distant. Memorization virtually precludes establishing
rapport with the audience and adapting to their reactions while you
speak. It produces a self or speaker-centered approach and is not
recommended. Reading a manuscript is also not advisable even though many
professors seem to reward students who do so (perhaps because they
themselves get away with it at professional meetings). The delivery
sounds dull and lifeless because most people are not trained to read
aloud and therefore
do it badly. They become focused on the manuscript to the exclusion of
the audience. This head-down preoccupation with the text is clearly
inappropriate for management presentations.
The extemporaneous presentation is audience
centered and made from minimal notes or an outline. This mode permits the speaker to be natural, conversational, and flexible. Clearly, it is the best choice for an organisational setting. Preparation consists of writing a draft along with a complete sentence outline and converting the main points to notes. In this way, you can try lines of argument, experiment with various ways of expressing thoughts, and develop phraseology. Along the way, the main points are fixed sequentially in your mind, and supporting connections are made.
Audiences accept notes, and their presence does wonders in allaying
speaker fears. Even if you never use them, they are there for
psychological support. Many prefer to use 5-by-8 inch cards for their
briefing notes because they hold more information and so require less
shuffling than the smaller 3-by-5 size. Card contents vary widely, but
here are some general guidelines for their design:
• Place title and preliminary remarks on the first card.
• Use each of the remaining cards to carry a major section of the
presenttion. The amount of detail depends on the need for precision and
the speaker’s desire for supporting information.
• Include key phrases, illustrations, statistics, dates and
pronunciation guides for difficult words. Include also quotations and
ideas that bear repeating.
• Along the margin, place instructions and cues, such as SLOW, FAST,
EMPHASIZE, TRANSPARENCY A, TURN CHART, and GO BACK TO CHART 3.
Delivery
While the content is the chief concern, the speaker’s delivery is also
important. A polished presentation adds to the receptiveness of the
audience, but there is some danger that the presentation may overpower
the message. Fortunately, the typical research audience knows why it is
assembled, has a high level of interest, and does not need to be
entertained. Even so, the speaker faces a real challenge in
communicating effectively. The delivery should be restrained. Demeanor,
posture, dress, and total appearance should be appropriate for the
occasion. Speed of speech, clarity of enunciation, pauses, and gestures
all play their part. Voice pitch, tone quality, and inflections are
proper subjects for concern. There is little time for anecdotes and
other rapport-developing techniques, yet the speaker must get and hold
audience attention.
